What are the three major elements in preventing exposure to bloodborne pathogens?
Preventing occupational exposure to and infection from bloodborne pathogens is a key element of injection safety. Thus, such prevention is an important part of any comprehensive programme for protecting health workers and patients. Show
The main interventions that are needed to prevent exposure and infection are:
Each of these interventions is discussed below. 4.1. Basic occupational health care4.1.1. Immunization against hepatitis BWHO considers universal immunization to be the most effective preventive measure against diseases induced by infection with hepatitis B. Strategies include:
All health workers – including waste disposal workers, and emergency and safety workers exposed to the risk of bloodborne pathogens – are at risk of exposure. They should be immunized either before training or as soon as possible when at work, unless they are already immunized (15). The World Health Assembly has resolved that all health workers should be protected from infection with HBV by receiving immunization for hepatitis B early in their careers (15). Vaccines are widely available that are safe, cost effective and meet the current WHO quality requirements (13). Routine immunization of health workers against infection with HBV is recommended.
4.1.2. Testing for HBV, HCV and HIVAll health workers should have access to the tests available for HBV, HCV and HIV infection. If they know their own status for these infections, health workers can access treatment and care if necessary. Also, in cases of exposure to HBV, HCV or HIV, test results provide baseline information on immune status; this is critical for the safe and efficient management of the postexposure procedures available for hepatitis B and HIV. Any testing should be undertaken in conditions that respect the worker's rights and is based on informed consent. These conditions are described in guidelines developed by the International Labour Organization and WHO, on health services and HIV/AIDS (63). 4.2. Prevention of needle-stick injuries and other blood exposures using a hierarchy of controlsMethods used to control occupational hazards have traditionally been discussed in terms of a hierarchy and presented in order of priority. A hierarchy of controls to prevent needle-stick injuries and other blood exposures is given below by order of effectiveness (most effective first) (64, 65).
4.3. Overview of management of exposure to bloodThis section discusses management of occupational exposure to blood and other potentially infectious material. The exposure can occur through needle-stick and sharp injuries, and from splashes contaminated with blood or body fluids. Management includes first aid, risk assessment, notification and reporting for HBV, HCV and HIV, and provision of PEP. The prophylaxis should be administered as soon after exposure as possible; it entails medical evaluation, follow-up care and prevention, and is specific to the etiologic agent involved (43). The risks of transmission of infection from an infected patient to the health worker following a needle-stick injury are estimated to be (6):
Factors that can increase the risk of transmission of HIV include a deep wound, visible blood on the device, a hollow-bore blood-filled needle, use of the device to access an artery or vein, and high-viral-load status of the patient (6, 63). Together, these factors can increase the risk of transmission of HIV from a contaminated sharp to 5%. The box below summarizes the steps to take in case of occupational exposure to blood. The management of exposure to specific agents (HBV, HCV and HIV) is discussed in detail below. In all cases, the person who has been exposed to potentially infectious material should be counseled; where PEP is available, the counselling should include the decision on whether or not to take PEP. Box 4.1Steps to take in cases of occupational exposure to blood. Apply first aid care, as appropriate (see Section 4.3.1, below). Notify a supervisor. The health-care worker should report immediately to the medical services and seek advice on the need for PEP (more...) 4.3.1. First aidThe first aid given is based on the type of exposure (e.g. splash, needle-stick or other injury) and the means of exposure (e.g. intact skin, nonintact skin) (14, 72). Table 4.1 shows the first aid to apply in different situations. Table 4.1First-aid care of the exposure site. 4.3.2. NotificationThe health-care worker should report immediately to the medical services and seek advice on the need for PEP for HIV and HBV. 4.3.3. Risk assessmentIn managing exposure, the first step is to carry out an immediate medical evaluation, including a risk assessment (72). To assess the risk of transmission from the exposure:
Ensure that only a suitably trained person performs the medical evaluation, risk assessment and prescription of PEP. Where logistic reasons (e.g. testing facilities not being readily available) make it difficult to evaluate the immune status of the person exposed, it may be useful to withdraw and store a blood sample, to help in obtaining baseline information. However, only do this if the exposed person gives informed consent. Give PEP, even if test results are not yet available. 4.4. Evaluation and management of exposure to HBV4.4.1. Risk of transmission of HBVThe risk of transmission of HBV is higher than that for HCV or HIV. Among susceptible health workers, the risk of HBV infection after a needle-stick injury involving an HBV-positive source is 23–62% (6, 14). 4.4.2. Management of HBV exposurePEP for HBV can be highly effective in preventing transmission of the virus after exposure. PEP for HBV is based on the hepatitis B vaccine, either alone or combined with hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG).
The steps to take after HBV exposure are to:
WHO has no specific guidelines for HBV PEP; however, it does recommend HBV PEP (73). This document refers to the CDC guidelines (14). As shown in Table 4.2, the regimen recommended for HBV PEP depends on the vaccination status of the exposed person. HBV PEP is safe for pregnant and lactating women. Table 4.2Hepatitis B post-exposure prophylaxis and immunization follow-up in occupational settings. 4.4.3. Follow-up of HBV exposurePerform follow-up testing for antibodies to hepatitis B in individuals who receive hepatitis B vaccine in response to an exposure. The recommendation is to test for antibodies 1–2 months after the last dose of vaccine. However, if the person received hepatitis B immune globulin in the previous 3–4 months, it is not possible to use the test for antibodies to hepatitis B to determine the response to the vaccine. 4.5. Evaluation and management of exposure to HCV4.5.1. Risk of transmission of HCVThe risk of transmission of HCV is relatively low. The seroconversion rate after accidental percutaneous exposure from an HCV-positive source is 1.8% (range: 0–7%), and one study indicated that transmission occurred only from hollow-bore needles. HCV is rarely transmitted from exposure of mucous membranes or nonintact skin to contaminated blood (14, 16). 4.5.2. Management of exposure to HCVThere is no recommended PEP for exposure to HCV-positive blood. Immunoglobulin and antiviral agents are not recommended as PEP, and there is no vaccine against HCV. Instead, the procedure is to identify infection as soon as possible and refer the person for evaluation of treatment options. There are no guidelines for administration of therapy during the acute phase of hepatitis C. However, a few studies suggest that antiviral therapy might be beneficial when started early in the course of the infection. The steps to take after HCV exposure are simply to perform baseline testing for antibodies to HCV and for alanine aminotransferase (ALT). 4.5.3. Follow-up of HCV exposurePerform follow-up testing for individuals potentially exposed to HCV.
If an individual has seroconverted, refer the person to a specialist. 4.6. Management of exposure to HIV4.6.1. Risk of transmission of HIVThe risk of acquiring HIV infection following an exposure through the skin (i.e. percutaneous) to blood known to be infected with HIV is approximately 0.3% (14). This figure is derived from studies carried out in well-resourced countries with a low background prevalence of HIV. The risk may be greater in countries with higher prevalence or in settings that have limited resources, where the reuse of medical supplies and equipment is higher and overall safety standards are lower. 4.6.2. Management of exposure to HIVRefer the person exposed to the risk of transmission to a trained person for medical evaluation, risk assessment and prescription of PEP. The decision on whether or not to take PEP should be based on the recommendations shown in Tables 4.3 and 4.4, appropriate information, and counselling on adherence and on the possible adverse reactions to the antiretroviral drugs. Table 4.3HIV post-exposure prophylaxis following occupational exposure. Table 4.4Evaluation of risk of HIV infection. Testing and counsellingFor people potentially exposed to HIV, testing is highly recommended but should never be mandatory (76).
Issues to raise in PEP counselling include:
Administration of PEPDo not administer PEP to a person who is HIV positive, because PEP generally includes only two drugs to be taken for only 28 days, and is thus not a treatment for HIV infection. HIV treatment is based on a combination of three antiretroviral drugs taken continuously. If desired, it is acceptable to administer antiretroviral drugs for PEP, and to stop the treatment if the exposed person is found to be HIV positive. In situations where PEP is required:
HIV PEP standard drug regimenTable 4.5 shows the WHO recommended two-drug combination therapies for PEP for HIV exposure. Table 4.5WHO recommended two-drug regimens for HIV post-exposure prophylaxis. As explained above, in cases where the source person is known to be HIV positive with drug resistance, or in settings where the drug resistant HIV prevalence is above 15%, a three-drug regimen with the addition of a protease inhibitor is recommended. Possible regimens are given in Table 4.6. Table 4.6WHO recommended three-drug regimens for HIV post-exposure prophylaxis. When giving PEP:
4.6.3. Follow-up of HIV exposureAn exposed health worker should seek or be referred for medical follow-up (77).
Reporting of HIV exposureReporting of the incident should lead to the evaluation of the safety of working conditions and appropriate measures when relevant. All reports should be strictly confidential. Prompt reporting of exposures is important to:
The data collected are of two kinds:
What are the three important precautions to preventing a bloodborne pathogen infection?These precautions require that all blood and other body fluids be treated as if they are infectious. Standard precautions include maintaining personal hygiene and using personal protective equipment (PPE), engineering controls, work practice controls, and proper equipment cleaning and spill cleanup procedures.
What are the 3 main types of bloodborne pathogens?Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are three of the most common bloodborne pathogens from which health care workers are at risk. However, bloodborne pathogens are implicated in the transmissions of more than 20 other pathogens (Beltrami et al 2000 ).
What are the 3 main diseases of concern regarding bloodborne pathogens?The pathogens of primary concern are the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Workers and employers should take advantage of available engineering controls and work practices to prevent exposure to blood and other body fluids.
What are the 3 routes of occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens?Three Main Routes of Bloodborne Pathogen Transmission in the Workplace. Unprotected openings in the skin. Bloodborne pathogens can be transmitted through cuts, scrapes, or any other open wounds. ... . Mucous membranes. ... . Penetration of skin.. |