What is the term for carefully controlling a stimulus and gradually increasing its intensity quizlet?
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These are NOT key terms, but these are additional terms and explanations found throughout the chapter Terms in this set (121)Punishment It is as important to learning as reinforcement. Learning from the consequences that produce pain or discomfort, or the loss of reinforcers, has survival value for the individual organism and for the species. Punishment teaches us not to repeat responses that cause us harm. Positive Punishment Occurs when the presentation of a stimulus (or an increase in the intensity of an already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior results in a decrease in the frequency of the behavior. Negative Punishment Involves the termination of an already present stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of an already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior that results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior. It involves the contingent loss of available reinforcers immediately following a behavior or the removal of the opportunity to acquire additional reinforcers for a period of time. Also known as Penalty principle or Type II punishment. Motivating operation For a stimulus change to function as negative punishment, a "________" for the reinforcer must be in effect, otherwise removing it will not constitute punishment. Aversive control Because aversive events are associated with positive punishment and with negative reinforcement, the umbrella term _______is often used to describe interventions involving either or both of these two principles. Avoids punishment If one action is punished, there is usually some alternative that____________. The keys to identify and distinguishing concurrent positive punishment and negative reinforcement contingencies involving the same aversive stimulus event are 1) recognizing the opposite effects the two contingencies have on the future frequency of behavior, and b) realizing that two different behaviors must be involved because the same consequence cannot serve as positive punishment and negative reinforcement for the same behavior. Threat A _____ of what might happen if a person subsequently behaves in a certain way is an antecedent event to the behavior. When the ____ of punishment suppresses behavior, it may be due to the threat functioning as an establishing operation that evokes alternative behaviors that avoid the threatened punishment. Antecedent stimulus The ______situation in which punishment occurs plays an important role in determining the environmental conditions in which the suppressive effects of punishment will be observed. The three term contingency for punishment In a particular stimulus situation (s) some kinds of behavior ( R), when followed immediately by certain stimulus changes (Sp), show a decreased future frequency of occurrence in the same or in similar situations. Discriminated operant A ______for punishment is the product of a conditioning history in which responses in the presence of a certain stimulus have been punished and similar responses in the absence of that stimulus have not been punished (or have resulted in a reduced frequency or magnitude of punishment). Recovery from punishment When punishment is discontinued, its suppressive effects on responding are usually not permanent. This phenomenon is called ____ which is analogous to extinction. Sometimes the rate of responding after punishment is discontinued will not only recover but also briefly exceed the level at which it was occurring prior to punishment. ______ is more likely to occur when the punishment was mild or when the person can discriminate that the punishment contingency is no longer active. Permanent response suppression ___may occur when complete suppression of behavior to a zero rate of responding has been achieved with intense punishment. Unconditioned and conditioned Punishers can be classified as:______punishers and _____punishers. Unconditioned punisher is a stimulus whose presentation functions as punishment without having been paired with any other punishers. Examples of unconditioned punishers Painful stimulation such as that caused by physical trauma to the body, certain odors and tastes, physical restraint, loss of bodily support, and extreme muscular effort. Establishing operation The effectiveness of an unconditioned punisher does not depend on a relevant ________. Under most conditions many unconditioned punishers will suppress any behavior that precedes their onset.
Conditioned punisher It is a stimulus change that functions as punishment as a result of a person's conditioning history. A conditioned punisher acquires the capability to function as a punisher through stimulus-stimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned or conditioned punishers. If a conditioned punisher is repeatedly presented without the punisher(s) with which it was initially paired, its effectiveness as punishment will wane until it is no longer a punisher. Verbal analog conditioning Previous neutral stimuli can also become conditioned punishers for humans without direct physical pairing with another punisher through a pairing process called _________- Examples of generalized conditioned punishers Reprimands such as "No" "Don't do that" and social disapproval such as scowl, head shake, frowns. Generalized conditioned punishers ___ are free from the control of specific motivating conditions and will function as punishment under most conditions. Factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment Immediacy, intensity/magnitude, schedule, reinforcement maintaining target behavior, reinforcement for alternative behaviors Immediacy Maximum suppressive effects are obtained when the onset of the punisher occurs as soon as possible after the occurrence of a target response. Intensity/magnitude The greater the ______of the punishing stimulus, the more immediately and thoroughly it suppresses the occurrence of the behavior. The more ________the punisher, the less likely that responding will reoccur when punishment is terminated. A high-______stimulus may be ineffective as punishment if the stimulus used as punishment was initially of low intensity and gradually increased. Important about the selection of magnitude of a punishing stimulus While the punishing stimulus needs to be intensive enough for an effective application, it should not be more intense than necessary. Schedule of punishment Continuous punishment produces more suppression than does intermittent punishment for as long as the punishment contingency is maintained. However, after the punishment contingency has been discontinued, continuous punishment allows more rapid recovery of the responses, possible because the absence of punishment can be more rapidly discriminated Reinforcement for the target behavior The effectiveness of punishment is modulated by the reinforcement contingencies maintaining the problem behavior. Reinforcement for alternative behaviors If punishment is employed in an attempt to eliminate certain behavior, then whatever reinforcement the undesirable behavior had led to must be made available via more desirable behavior. Reinforcement According to Thompson and colleagues (1999) The effects of punishment can be enhanced when _____ is provided for an alternative response. This is a method for increasing the effectiveness of punishment through means other than increasing the aversiveness of the punishing stimulus, thereby resulting in the development of more effective yet less restrictive interventions. Possible side effects and problems with punishment Emotional and aggressive reactions, escape and avoidance, behavioral contrast, undesirable modeling, negative reinforcement of the punishing agent's behavior Respondent aggression Punishment sometimes evokes emotional and aggressive reactions that can involve a combination of respondent and conditioned operant behaviors. ______ is directed toward any nearby person or object. Operant aggression Is the aggressive behavior following punishment that occurs because it has enabled the person to escape the aversive stimulation in the past. Escape and avoidance Natural reactions to aversive stimulation. A person may lie, cheat, hide, or exhibit other undesirable behaviors to avoid punishment. People sometimes escape punishing environments by taking drugs or alcohol. They can be minimized or precluded altogether by providing the person with desirable alternative responses to the problem behavior that both avoid the delivery of punishment and provide reinforcement. Example of a behavioral contrast effect of punishment A child is eating cookies before dinner from the cookie jar at equal rates in the presence and absence of his grandmother. One day Grandma scolds the child for eating a cookie before dinner, which suppresses his rate of predinner cookie eating when she is in the kitchen, but when Grandma's not in the kitchen, the boy eats cookies from the jar at a higher rate than he did when unsupervised prior to punishment. Minimized or prevented Contrast effects of punishment can be ____or _____altogether, by consistently punishing occurrences of the target behavior in all relevant settings and stimulus conditions, withholding or at least minimizing the person's access to reinforcement for the target behavior, and providing alternative desirable behaviors. Negative Reinforcement of the punishing agent's behavior.
When person A delivers a reprimand or other aversive consequence to person B from misbehaving, the immediate effect is often the cessation of the troubling behavior, which serves as negative reinforcement for person's A's behavior. Examples of positive punishment interventions. Reprimands, response blocking, contingent exercise, overcorrection, contingent electric stimulation Reprimands The delivery of verbal _______ following the occurrence of misbehavior is without doubt the most common form of positive punishment. ______ as punishers for disruptive behavior in the classroom found that a _____delivered with eye contact and a "firm grasp of the student's shoulder" were more effective than reprimands without those nonverbal components, and _______delivered in close proximity to the student were more effective than reprimands delivered from across the room. They should be used thoughtfully and sparingly in combination with frequent praise and attention contingent on appropriate behavior. Response blocking In addition to preventing the response (_____________)from occurring by using the least amount of physical contact and restrain possible, the therapist might issue a verbal reprimand or prompt to stop engaging in the behavior Contingent exercise It is an intervention in which the person is required to perform a response that is not topographically related to the problem behavior. It has been found effective as punishment for various self-stimulatory, stereotypic, disruptive, aggressive, and self-injurious behaviors. Prompts and reinforcement Providing ____ and _____for an alternative response can minimize resistance and aggression. Overcorrection It combines the suppressive effects of punishment and the educative effects of positive practice. There is two types: restitution and positive practice Simple correction The learner is required, subsequent to the occurrence of an inappropriate behavior, to restore the environment to its previous state. It is not possible if the problem behavior produces an irreversible effect or if the corrective behavior is beyond the person's means or skills. Positive practice May be effective because of the inconvenience and effort involved, or because it provides additional learning. Potential problems with overcorrection It is a labor intensive, time-consuming procedure that requires full attention. For it to be effective as punishment, the time that the learner spends with the person monitoring the overcorrection sequence must not be reinforcing. There is a likelihood of refusal to perform the overcorrection sequence. Contingent electric stimulation Type of punishment that involves the presentation of a brief electrical stimulus immediately following an occurrence of the problem behavior. It can be safe and highly effective method for suppressing chronic and life-threatening self-injurious behavior. Punishment may be a treatment of choice when: a)The problem behavior produces serious physical harm and must be suppressed quickly b) reinforcement-based treatments have not reduced the problem behavior to socially acceptable levels c) the reinforcer maintaining the problem behavior cannot be identified or withheld. Punisher assessment They are like the stimulus preference and/or reinforcement assessment, except that instead of measuring engagement or duration of contact with each stimulus, the behavior analyst measures negative verbalizations, avoidance movements, and escapte attempts associated with each stimulus. The quality (or effectiveness) The _______of a punisher is relative to a number of past and current variables that affect the participant. Although stimuli that reliably evoke escape and avoidance behaviors often function as high-quality punishers, practitioners should recognize that a stimulus change that effectively suppresses some behaviors may not affect other behaviors and that highly motivated problem behaviors may only be suppressed by a particularly high-quality punisher. Greater the intensity (magnitude, or amount) The______ of a punishing stimulus, the greater the suppression of behavior. This finding is conditional on delivering the punishing stimulus at its optimum level of magnitude initially, rather than gradually increasing the level over time. Adapt Beginning with a punishing stimulus of sufficient magnitude is important, because participants may ______to the punishing stimulus when levels of magnitude are increased gradually. habituation The effectiveness of a punishing stimulus can decrease with repeated presentations of that stimulus. Using a variety of punishers, may help to reduce _________effects. In addition, using various punishers may increase the effectiveness of less intrusive punishers. begins Punishing an inappropriate behavior as soon as it _____ is more effective than waiting until the chain of behavior has been completed. Once the sequence of responses that make up the problem behavior is initiated, powerful secondary reinforcers associated with completing each step of the chain may prompt its continuation, thereby counteracting the inhibiting or suppressing effects of the punishment that occurs at the end of the sequence. Continuous schedule of Punishment Punishment is more effective when the punisher follows each response. Practitioners may find a continuous schedule of punishment unacceptable because they lack the resources and time to attend to each occurrence of behavior. After a responding has been reduced by a continuous schedule of punishment, an intermittent schedule of punishment may be sufficient to maintain the behavior at a socially accepted frequency. Extinction Intermittent schedule of punishment should be combined with_____. It is unlikely that reduced responding will continue under intermittent punishment if the reinforcer that maintains the problem behavior cannot be identified and withheld. DRA, DRI, or DRO The effectiveness of a punishment is enhanced when the learner can make other responses for reinforcement. ___, ___ or___ should be incorporated into a treatment program to supplement a punishment procedure. Extinction and antecedent interventions Besides differential reinforcement, other interventions could be used with punishment such as: _____ and a variety of _______ Abolishing operation Heavy and consistent doses of reinforcement for alternative behaviors functions as an _______that weakens (abates) the frequency of the problem behavior that is being punished. Eliminates Punishment (with the exception of some overcorrection procedures) _____behaviors from a person's repertoire. Punishment only teaches what not to do, it does not teach what to do instead. Antecedent interventions The effectiveness of _____________(High-p, FCT, NCR), which diminish the frequency of problem behaviors by decreasing the effectiveness of the reinforcers that maintain the problem behaviors, can be made more effective when combined with punishment. Negative Side Effects The suppression of one problem behavior by punishment may lead to an increase in other undesirable behaviors. Punishing one problem behavior may lead to a parallel decrease in desirable behaviors. Ethical considerations regarding the use of punishment revolve around three major issues:
The client's right to safe and humane treatment, the professional's responsibility to use least restrictive procedures, and the client's right to effective treatment Right to safe and humane treatment The first ethical canon and responsibility for any human services provider is to do no harm. Any behavior change program must be physically safe for all involved and contain no elements that are degrading or disrespectful to participants. Least restrictive alternative Intrude on a client's life only as necessary to provide effective intervention. The doctrine of the _________________holds that less intrusive procedures should be tried and found to be ineffective before more intrusive procedures are implemented. More intrusive but effective procedure Although least restrictive alternative practices assume that the less intrusive procedures are tried and found ineffective before a more restrictive intervention is introduced, practitioners must balance that approach against an effectiveness standard. If a choice must be made between a less intrusive but ineffective procedure and a more intrusive but effective procedure, a_________ should be chosen. Restrictive procedures Exposure of an individual to ______in unacceptable unless it can be shown that such procedures are necessary to produce safe and clinically significant behavior change. It is equally unacceptable to expose an individual to a nonrestrictive intervention if assessment results or available research indicate that other procedures would be more effective. restrictiveness A procedure's overall level of _____is a combined function of its absolute level of restrictiveness, the amount of time required to produce a clinically acceptable outcome, and the consequences associated with delayed intervention. Right to effective treatment Ethical discussions regarding the use of punishment revolve most often around its possible side effects and how experiencing the punisher may cause unnecessary pain and possible psychological harm for the person. Although each of these concerns deserves careful consideration, it is important to note that for some clients, punishment-based intervention may be the only means of reducing the frequency, duration, or magnitude of chronic and dangerous behaviors that have proven resistant to change using positive reinforcement, extinction, or positive reductive approaches such as differential reinforcement of alternative behavior. Default technology. Punishment-base interventions involving the contingent application of aversive stimulation should be treated as ______, this is one technology that a practitioner turns to when all other methods have failed. Negative punishment Punishment by the contingent removal of a stimulus Time out from positive reinforcement and response cost Two type of negative punishment. Time-out procedure defined procedurally Period of time when the person is either removed from a reinforcing environment or loses access to reinforcers within an environment Time-out procedure defined conceptually The greater the difference between the reinforcing value of time-in and absence of that reinforcing value in the time-out setting, the more effective time-out will be. Time-out procedure defined functionally Time-out involves the reduced frequency of the future occurrence of the behavior. Without a reduction in frequency of future behavior, time-out is not in effect, even if the person is procedurally removed from the setting or loses access to reinforcers. Nonexclusion and exclusion These are two basic types of time-out procedures. Nonexclusion time-out It is the recommended method of first choice because it is the least restrictive of the time-out procedures. Planned ignoring, withdrawal of a specific reinforcer, contingent observation and time-out ribbon Four different ways in which nonexclusion time-out occurs. Planned ignoring defined operationally It can involve systematically looking away from the individual, remaining quiet, or refraining from any interaction whatsoever for a specific time. It is a nonintrusive time-out procedure that can be applied quickly and conveniently. Contingent observation When the student is told to "sit and watch" during a time-out procedure. Establishing Operations The _____ for the programmed reinforcers in time-in also establish the punishing effect of the ribbon loss. Losing the opportunity to earn a consequence is only important if you currently "want" that consequence. MO's that increase the reinforcing effectiveness of particular objects or events also increase the punishing effectiveness of making those objects or events unavailable. Time-out room, partition time-out and hallway time-out Three ways in which exclusion time-out procedure can be conducted. Time-out room
It is any confined space outside the participant's normal education or treatment environment that is devoid of positive reinforcers and in which the person can be safely placed for a temporary period. It should not have any potentially reinforcing features available. It should be secure, but not locked. Advantages of time-out room Opportunity to acquire reinforcement is eliminated or reduced substantially. Students learn to discriminate this room from other rooms in the building. The room assumes conditioned aversive properties. The risk of a student hurting others in the time-in setting is reduced when the offending student is removed to this space. Disadvantages of time-out room The necessity of escorting the student to the time-out room. Resistance can be encountered. Removing an individual from the time-in environment prohibits that individual from access to ongoing academic or social instruction. In time-out room the person may engage in behaviors that should be stopped but that go undetected (self-destructive or self-stimulatory beh). Practitioners must be sensitive to the public's perception of the time-our room. Advantages of partition time-out Keeps the student within the time-in settings presumably to hear academic content and the teacher praising other students for appropriate behavior. Disadvantages of partition time-out Person may still be able to obtain covert reinforcement from other students. Also public perception must be taken into account with this form of exclusion. Some parents may view any type of separation from other members of the class as discriminatory. Hallway time-out It is not a highly recommended time-out procedure because the student can obtain reinforcement from a multitude of sources and because there is increased likelihood of escape if the student is combative on the way to time-out. Might be more beneficial for younger children who follow directions, but it is clearly inappropriate for any student who lacks basic compliance skills. Ease application, acceptability, rapid suppression of behavior and application with other procedures Some desirable aspects of time-out procedure Easy Time-out is relatively ___ to apply Acceptability Time-out , especially nonexclusion variations, meets an ______standard because practitioners regard it as appropriate, fair, and effective. Moderate-to-rapid Time-out usually suppresses the target behavior in a ________ fashion. Sometimes only a few applications are needed to achieve an acceptable reduction levels. Combined Time-out can be ____ with other procedures, extending its usability in applied settings. Time-in environment _____must be reinforcing. The practitioner should seek ways to reinforce behaviors that are alternative or incompatible with behaviors that lead to time-out. Upon return from time-out, reinforcement for appropriate behavior must be delivered as quickly as possible. Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Behaviors All of the appropriate parties must be informed of the ________ that will lead to time out. Those ___ must be defined in explicit, observable terms. Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Duration The initial _____of time out should be short. A period of 2 to 10 minutes is sufficient. As a rule, time-out ______exceeding 15 minutes are not likely to be effective. A person may develop a tolerance for the longer duration and find ways to obtain reinforcement during time-out. The longer the duration of time-out, the more opportunity there is to engage in reinforcing activities. The person is removed from the educational, therapeutic, or family time-in environment in which the opportunity to learn and earn reinforcers is available. Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Terminate The decision to terminate time-out should not be based exclusively on the passage of time; an improved behavioral condition should also be used as the ultimate criterion for ending time-out. If a person is misbehaving when time-out ends, it should be continued until the inappropriate behavior ceases. Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Rules ______should focus on the initial duration of time-out and the exit criteria. Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Permission Practitioners must obtain _____before employing time-out. Decide beforehand the type of time-out that will be implemented for certain offenses, the duration of time-out and the behaviors that will demonstrate reinstatement to the time-in environment. Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Time-out Each occurrence of the undesirable behavior should lead to ______ Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Effective Data need to be obtained on the inappropriate behavior that initially led to time-out. If time-out is ____, the level of that behavior should be reduced substantially, and that reduction should be noticed by other persons in the environment. Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. First Time-out should not be the method of _____choice. Practitioners should initially consider extinction or positive reductive procedures (DRO, DRI) . Important decision necessary to implement time-out procedures adequately. Illegal Removing a person to a locked room is considered _____unless it can be demonstrated that the seclusion is part of an overall treatment plan and unless the program is carefully and closely monitored. Response cost defined by function Response cost occurs when the future frequency of the punished behavior is reduced by the response-contingent withdrawal of a positive reinforcer. Each occurrence of the inappropriate behavior results in the loss of a specific amount of positive reinforcement already held by the individual. It usually involves the loss of generalized conditioned reinforcers, tangibles, or activities. Desirable aspects of response cost. Moderate-to rapid decrease in behavior, convenience in implementation, can be combined with other behavior change procedures Fines, Bonus response cost, response cost + positive reinforcement and combining with group consequences These are the four methods for implementing response cost. Fines A specific amount of positive reinforcer is taken away. In some cases, removing unconditioned and conditioned reinforcers from a person would be considered legally and ethically inappropriate or undesirable. Human rights review committee To avoid any potential problem when applying fines, practitioners must obtain permission from the local _____ or modify the response cost contingency. Positive reinforcement Response cost can be combined with ______ Some advantages of this method are : if all of the tokens or points are not lost via response cost, the remaining ones can be traded for backup reinforcers. Also, reinforcers can be resupplied by performing appropriate behavior, reducing legal and ethical concerns. Response cost with group consequences Contingent on the inappropriate behavior of any member of a group, the whole group loses a specific amount of reinforcement. Magnitude The behavior targeted for response cost and the amount of the fine need to be explicitly stated. Any rules that would apply for refusal to comply with the response cost procedure need to be explained. Included in the definition of target behaviors should be the corresponding point loss for each behavior. The _____of the punishment (response cost) should fit the offense. It is likely that as the ____of the fine increases, larger reductions in the rate of the undesirable behavior may occur. However, if the loss of reinforcers is too great and too rapid, the rate of the reduction of the inappropriate target behavior may be affected adversely. Using response cost effectively Immediately The fine should be imposed ____ after the occurrence of each undesirable behavior Using response cost effectively Principle of the least restrictive alternative The least aversive procedure should be attempted initially. Consistent with the ________an effort should be made to ensure that the minimum loss of reinforcers occurs for the minimum amount of time. Bonus response cost may be less aversive than response cost. Using response cost effectively
Social validity What is the potential for aggressive, emotional outburst? From a _______perspective, students would probably find it more agreeable to lose reinforcers from an available reserve than from their earnings. Consequently, a bonus response cost procedure might be less likely to spark aggressive or emotional outburst. Using response cost effectively Response cost Combative or noncompliant behavior may be more appropriately suppressed with ________ because the contingency directly reduces the student's available reinforcers. The response-contingent withdrawal of reinforcers serves to reduce the behavior swiftly and markedly. Using response cost effectively Removed Positive reinforcers cannot be ______from a person who does not have any. To reduce the likelihood of having no reinforcers: manage the ratio of points earned to points lost. Determining the magnitude of the fine, and stating it explicitly beforehand, is helpful. Minor infractions may warrant relatively small fines, whereas major infractions may warrant substantially higher fines. If all reinforcers are lost and another inappropriate behavior occurs, time-out might be applied. After that, when reinforcers have again been earned for appropriate behavior, response cost can be reinstituted. A prudent approach is to increase the number of reinforcers 25% above the mean number of occurrences during baseline. Using response cost effectively Contingency plan Two situations may require the implementation of a __________ The repeated imposition of response cost serves to reinforcer, rather than punish or when the person refuses to give up her positive reinforcers. Recognizing the potential for unplanned or unexpected outcomes. Give up positive reinforcers Practitioners should clarify the consequences of refusing to ______and they should make sure that an adequate supply of backup reinforcers is available. They should impose an additional penalty fine for not giving up the reinforcers, and/or they should reimburse the person with some fractional portion of the fine for complying with immediate payment. Recognizing the potential for unplanned or unexpected outcomes. Verbal and physical aggressiveness Response-contingent withdrawal of positive reinforcers may increase student ____and ____ Response cost considerations Aversive stimulus The setting in which response cost occurs or the person who administers it can become a conditioned ____________ A teacher can reduce the likelihood of becoming a conditioned aversive stimulus by contingently delivering positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior. Response cost considerations Collateral reductions of desired behaviors The response-contingent withdrawal of positive reinforcers for one behavior can affect the frequency of other behaviors as well. Teachers and other practitioners should anticipate _________and clearly explain the response cost rules, reinforce other classmates as models of appropriate behavior, and avoid face-to face confrontations. Response cost considerations Undesirable behavior Response cost calls attention to the_______. The teacher's attention-even in the form of notification of reinforcer loss- could serve as a reinforcing consequence. In effect, her attention may increase the frequency of future misbehavior. In such situations, the teacher should change his tactic, perhaps combining response cost with time-out. Ratios of reinforcement to response cost contingencies should favor reinforcement. Response cost considerations Unpredictable Side effects of response cost can be ____
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What is bootleg reinforcement?Bootleg Reinforcement: Reinforcement that is not part of, and tends to undermine, an intervention.–scienceofbehavior.com. The term “bootleg” does not mean there is anything wrong or second-rate about the reinforcement. On the contrary, it is usually something very potent.
What is negative reinforcement of the punishing agents behavior?In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior.
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